Benin has begun construction of the 25 MW Forsun photovoltaic plant, which will join the Defisol and TTC projects to expand the total capacity of the Illoulofin solar power plant to 75 MW. The government said the project is supported by an investment of $25.8 million.
It said in a statement that the new plant at the Illoulofin solar power plant will expand the total capacity of the site from 50 MW to 75 MW in three sets.
“The Forsun project is the result of a fruitful cooperation with the French Development Agency (AFD) and the European Union, which are contributing alongside the Benin government with a total investment of nearly 16 billion CFA francs ($25.8 million),” the statement said. “This infrastructure, located in Illoulofin, in the commune of Pobè, in the Plateau department, enriches Benin’s energy matrix with clean and renewable energy, in line with the sustainable development goals.”
Defisol, which is Illoulofin’s first 25 MW project, was completed in 2022. Toyota Tsusho is currently building the second 25 MW plant, TTC, which will be operational soon.
“Increasing the capacity of the Illoulofin plant to 75 MWp will be sufficient to provide electricity to thousands of households,” the government said. “With these projects and achievements, Benin continues to chart its course towards sustainable energy independence, combining innovation, economic development and environmental preservation. The power plants at the Illoulofin plant embody this ambition and promise to mark the country’s energy history.”
Renewable energy in Benin: current situation and future prospects
To provide clean energy at a lower cost to their citizens, all nations of the world are striving to increase their energy production in an environmentally friendly way. Benin has also joined this dynamic by considerably increasing its green energy production efforts in recent years. The country has a huge undeveloped renewable-energy (RE) potential that can contribute considerably to its national energy production capacity. This paper summarizes the current RE situation in Benin and examines its future prospects. The current energy situation of the country is discussed, followed by an examination of its electricity demand-and-supply situation. The country has been found to depend heavily on natural gas and petroleum products from neighbouring countries and has ~41% of national electricity access. However, the government is taking considerable steps to implement RE projects in the country. The study analyzes government targets in the energy sector with existing policies and institutional frameworks. Recommendations are made for the benefit of the government, the private sector and other actors in order to developing the RE potential of Benin.
Graphical Abstract
Benin, electricity demand, energy policy, future prospect, renewable energy
Issue Section:
Introduction
Energy is one of the key factors affecting the economic growth of a nation. It is crucial for carrying out daily activities such as cooking, lighting, heating and operation of industrial machinery [1]. However, millions of people still do not have access to modern energy and depend on traditional biomass and coal as the main fuel sources [2]. The lack of access to clean, affordable and reliable energy hinders human and socio-economic development, and is a major obstacle to sustainable development goals [3]. Power generation and distribution across the African continent have undoubtedly been the Achilles heel in terms of better and more inclusive growth and socio-economic development [4]. Although the continent accounts for the smallest share of global greenhouse gas emissions, at just 3.8%, almost two-thirds of these emissions come from the energy sector [5]. Africa is the continent most affected by climate change and the continent is facing a wide range of impacts, including increasing drought and floods due to temperature rises [6]. The existing generation capacity of sub-Saharan Africa is hampered by difficulties. Even implementing an energy-mix strategy has not made a significant difference in terms of environmental protection while addressing energy poverty [7]. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA) [8], in 2020, 757 million people lived without access to electricity, mainly in developing nations in Asia and Africa as presented in Table 1. The situation is even worse in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) subregion where only 19% of the rural population have access to electricity, most of it concentrated in major rural centres [9]. Therefore, the main objectives of African countries are to meet their population’s growing energy demand while also ensuring universal access to modern energy services and maintaining environmental protection [10].
Table 1:
Global electricity access rates in 2020 [8]
| Region | Electrification rate (%) | Urban electrification rate (%) | Rural electrification rate (%) | Population without access (million) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| World Africa | 90 56 | 97 83 | 82 36 | 757 584 |
| North Africa | >99 | >99 | >99 | <1 |
| Sub-Saharan Africa | 49 | 79 | 28 | 583 |
| Developing Asia | 97 | 99 | 95 | 133 |
| China | >99 | >99 | >99 | <1 |
| India | >99 | >99 | >99 | 3 |
| Indonesia | >99 | >99 | >99 | <1 |
| Other Southeast Asia | 92 | 98 | 86 | 33 |
| Other Developing Asia | 82 | 90 | 77 | 97 |
| Central and South America | 97 | >99 | 86 | 17 |
| Middle East | 92 | 98 | 77 | 19 |
Benin is one of the least-developed countries in West Africa, struggling to satisfy the energy needs of its 12.2 million inhabitants [11]. With a total surface area of 114 763 km2, the country is endowed with a high potential for energy resources [12]. However, almost 59% of Benin’s population currently lacks access to electricity [13] and the country is heavily dependent on external energy importation. The cost of importing electricity is >$130 million annually and energy is primarily imported from Nigeria, Ivory Coast and Ghana [14]. However, Benin is one of the countries with the most affordable electricity for consumers. In 2019, in terms of the affordability of electricity for consumers, Benin obtained a score of 81 out of 100 compared with the average value, which is 77.25 out of 100 [13]. The government of Benin plans to continue its efforts to make electricity accessible to the population and ensure energy self-sufficiency [15].
Together with other ECOWAS nations, Benin implemented a coordinated strategy to carry out the sustainable energy for all (SE4ALL) country action, which included the creation of the Action Agenda as well as the formal acceptance of the Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Action Plans. By 2025, 95% and 65% of urban and rural areas are expected to have access to electricity, respectively, and to have achieved a renewable-energy (RE) target of 24.6% in the energy mix [16]. However, no action has been taken to effectively realize these goals. The government is aware of this and has initiated the transformation of the country’s energy mix, particularly by formulating a national energy development policy for RE [17]. As part of its programme of action, the government is planning reforms such as the establishment of an instrument to finance RE projects [13]. The production of energy from abundant RE sources available in the country is the solution to meet the energy needs of the Beninese while preserving the environment.
Taking into account the limitations and challenges in the development of RE in Benin, this study makes the following contribution:
- provides accurate and recent assessment of available RE resources and their potential in Benin Republic;
- analyses the future prospect of RE in Benin with government targets regarding sustainable development goals;
- presents an updated energy sector structure and makes recommendations on prioritizing RE in future energy project development.
This study aims to provide useful information on Benin’s RE situation by collecting data and analysing them from journal articles, official reports and available websites. This will help draw decision-makers and relevant stakeholders in the energy sector to the RE potential of Benin. Hence, Section 1 presents the current energy situation in Benin with a demand-and-supply scenario. Section 2 presents the potential of existing RE resources in Benin, while Section 3 exposes the future prospects of RE and government targets in Benin. Governmental policies and the existing institutional framework are highlighted in Section 4. Concluding remarks and recommendations are provided in Section 5.
1 Current energy situation: demand-and-supply scenarios in Benin
Understanding the energy scenarios in a country can help to take the necessary actions to improve the energy situation, which can promote the country’s economic development. This section provides information on Benin’s current energy situation with energy demand-and-supply scenarios.
1.1 Current energy situation of Benin
According to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 41% of Benin’s population currently have access to electricity. Despite the enormous effort of the government to provide access to clean and affordable energy services for its population, it is worth noticing that ~20 municipalities out of 77 in Benin still have an electricity access rate of <5% [18]. Fig. 1 presents electricity access per municipality in Benin, with Cotonou and Porto-Novo having almost universal access in 2020. The percentage of access to clean cooking devices was ~5% in 2020 [19]. In recent years, the energy intensity of the country has decreased, showing improvement in the energy sector as a result of government efforts. The energy intensity decreased from 0.61 in 2016 to 0.33 in 2020 as presented in Fig. 2 [17].
![Electricity access per municipality in Benin [18].](https://oup.silverchair-cdn.com/oup/backfile/Content_public/Journal/ce/7/5/10.1093_ce_zkad039/1/m_zkad039_fig1.jpeg?Expires=1734462506&Signature=at9Olm4cEpt9jf0GTd2r6N0N1Eook9H4LqGjqXQ6GB6wqtyztTi6BgmOWGkgbu2Kdi~tyHXtikPUApanySApLHwKQ5d-rvE9b8PTzvUqdoJEh-nQyKT-yisbKaev~kLHMw4PO6KJ-qeep68VfarZ5j7yXLWoxDsq7YNS3-i288QYBEjo3VGg-91MIrICsrKAE7r3KrVnd7joWoh1TuOx1O0JCKBx82NBvjb8TPdz8mYxeycYp8w84wrC65L0KKW1xkbn3xXcxNaM8Q5mwv~nG3DNunY7gjbeFZPCtpGp4vdbLkWxTviVRgSeNUeRD4vXg~mCPnm3ZHCC9453kt5z1g__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAIE5G5CRDK6RD3PGA)
Fig. 1:
Electricity access per municipality in Benin [18].
![Energy intensity of Benin (toe/1000 US $2010) [17].](https://oup.silverchair-cdn.com/oup/backfile/Content_public/Journal/ce/7/5/10.1093_ce_zkad039/1/m_zkad039_fig2.jpeg?Expires=1734462506&Signature=4ihYBBQwWJJI8e05W0sXHHhrB-5E~8Mbf974bfvuAd2ptb8H7v6PE6YwLV0JrKwwWqyU4T7cc9sDAjxemPErQnmcPKuLRIXDBdbOa874dq17PlBBYhGnNa5fbzVr3oUnMJEhTN7lDnPM9v-RLOvQak7jrOrC9ocF3oizHPfVqzNRXR4nQ621tbRjDS0t~c6hDBYlRLxxB3fqH4zAnxZRUQhrKXlEKXv5cspPavaLo9mAPlP15IwzoukME0wPG9IzCgq0XUO5-kPiuofxuIveeam6EmjK3KERF7j6bvWFqiBNWFoipl~owUfq66Acx5C2hCChqZmCDtPUPnybMaifPw__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAIE5G5CRDK6RD3PGA)
Fig. 2:
Energy intensity of Benin (toe/1000 US $2010) [17].
In Benin, there is a relatively low national energy consumption rate, which is characterized by a predominance of traditional biomass energy applications. Households and transportation operations make up the majority of the energy consumption structure by sector [20]. The net energy supply reached 5570 kilotonnes of equivalent oil (ktoe) in 2020—an average annual growth rate of 4.1% higher than in 2010. Biomass energy, which accounts for 53.3% of net supplies, is the most common energy source and includes wood, charcoal and agricultural waste. This percentage indicates how seriously natural forest resources are affected by the wood energy used in the production of charcoal. From 114 gigawatt hour (GWh) in 2010 to 1062.8 GWh in 2020, the energy output of self-producers and public power plants increased, with 810 GWh produced by public thermal power plants alone and 71.9 GWh by Benin’s portion of Nagbeto’s hydraulic production [17].
Benin has improved access to electricity and electrification at the national level over the period of 2014–18. With the implementation of different power projects and the construction of a 127-MW power plant in Maria Gléta, Benin’s installed capacity amounted to 181.5 MW in 2020; 127 MW comes from the central power station of Maria Gléta, 30 MW from the central of the Beninese Electric Power Company (SBEE), 4 MW from mini central, 20 MW from a gas turbine (TAG) and 0.5 MW from yeripao [21].
The evolution of the electrical mix of Benin indicates that, in 2020, natural gas was the first form of energy used to produce electrical energy, representing a proportion of 71.63%. Solar photovoltaic (PV) accounts for 0.30% of the mix by form of energy compared with 1.36% in 2016, as shown in Fig. 3. This shows that the government must make more effort to provide 100% electricity access to its community by 2050 [16].
![Electricity mix of Benin from 2016 to 2020 [18].](https://oup.silverchair-cdn.com/oup/backfile/Content_public/Journal/ce/7/5/10.1093_ce_zkad039/1/m_zkad039_fig3.jpeg?Expires=1734462506&Signature=LMvceK0D-mT3LD5BOAFLYiNXIyORu6WUUqKK-MmUZiO2fK~l4Zjwg~qy~y7C1vwEx2MfNAeZSFqvCc-UWkQVYIjlN4bEaiPsPigFSHNeerBoEByU2lI4ROWEHdTU2DwNDf84VZT1Nv3z-pNZkVVgjwlgOsd5fnJPqBLMnTQzEmolSHuPe5bknDNN1dGa2ss5gSBSeS~ZzNSofv-V-wFqkjdS1GUuucF8vXBoeCQLpa3TFke1TZRWPrpZBpo3gnfNcx3gLecWjW5HT4-b98R7HuMUVwadgFhAU3vpgRm0oX2OiLX7Xws70aKwf2hbXrUTU1IiwCYkjzB1kx4wfTFzZg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAIE5G5CRDK6RD3PGA)
Fig. 3:
Electricity mix of Benin from 2016 to 2020 [18].
1.2 Electricity demand-and-supply situation in Benin
In Benin, the energy sector strategy is aimed at improving the energy independence of the country and diversifying its sources of supply through the implementation of various interconnection projects with neighbouring countries and the enhancement of the national RE potential. Due to population growth and various activities, the energy demand has increased in recent decades in Benin. The country’s electricity supply is provided through two main sources, namely national production and imports. The Electricity Community of Benin (CEB), which is a mixed society between Benin and Togo, is responsible for providing electrical power to Benin. The national component of CEB is the SBEE, which is a government-owned national power supply corporation [22]. The SBEE purchases a significant proportion of its energy from the CEB to meet the user demand for electricity. The CEB, in turn, sources most of its energy from imports from Ghana and Nigeria, as well as its production facilities, including the Nangbéto hydroelectric power station on the Mono River and two thermal power stations (gas turbines) in Lomé and Cotonou [23].
In urban and peri-urban areas, access to electricity is provided by the SBEE through its distribution network, while in rural areas it is entrusted to the Beninese Agency for Rural Electrification and Energy Management (ABERME) through off-grid electricity production [24]. According to [23], the overall energy supply has increased constantly since 1996. It rose from 311 GWh in 1996 to 1703 GWh in 2019. This increase in supply is mainly supported by the import of electricity from neighbouring countries. However, the government of Benin is making serious efforts to increase local production through national projects, specifically the Solar Energy Promotion Project (PROVES) and the Renewable Energy Development Program (PRODERE) [12].
2 RE potential in Benin
The principal RE sources in Benin are hydro energy, biomass energy, wind energy and solar energy. They are the main sources of RE that can contribute to energy security in the country [21].
2.1 Hydropower
Benin has a significant hydroelectric potential; however, its exploitation is still in the embryonic stage [11]. It is anticipated to be valued for boosting the country’s potential to produce energy, as well as for the development of hydropower facilities with large, medium and small capacities and the construction of microhydro plants in rural regions. The largest river in Benin is the Oueme River. The Oueme basin, which empties into the Gulf of Guinea to the south, occupies ~43% of the country. The northern rivers of the nation are tributaries of the Niger River and flow to the north and east [25]. Two precipitation peaks of ~220 mm are observed in June and September to the south, with the northern and central peaks occurring in August, which are between 260 and 290 mm. The theoretical hydroelectric potential of Benin, which includes all its rivers, is estimated to be 749 MW [21]. According to [25], the size of the hydroelectric plant can be classified into four different classes, including pico/micro/mini hydropower plant (HPP) where the installed capacity is <1 MW, small HPPs with an installed capacity of between 1 and 30 MW, medium and large HPPs with an installed capacity of > 30 MW and ‘No attractive potential’ for river reaches with too low a potential for hydro energy generation. The existing proportion of those different categories in Benin is presented in Fig. 4.
![Theoretical hydropower potential of Benin [25].](https://oup.silverchair-cdn.com/oup/backfile/Content_public/Journal/ce/7/5/10.1093_ce_zkad039/1/m_zkad039_fig4.jpeg?Expires=1734462506&Signature=bQIBSRKb7tO1nW~R0QK6TbRgRwEmOLdpreC7B2dg-kATAauH3xsBvTktqYsTeiLHV4PfwYEQLLkO61QO5PU~Pnj3LWCa5YxVtixK3RWGG6DTV0oIBh2ezGxCr~zKiufrgOTdGQEcJ0p6sPw1FZckKEjyuGyWhuI1uveRBoO-MN6Eb4~h4Ow1yWfn68btkqinIF7IUfQPiF2Ge-YtyTQUW2v2AJL039Rfj2rkNoRxZgp3MoWU3yqo9sqmiV1IWUMgf75rX7G1CthgHDDFKSszeW6hHXq-pQjRwORAAN4JEMWo7QUvWCZVTibAXlMLEDogNPwoBNFUHJSF71eYhX3gZw__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAIE5G5CRDK6RD3PGA)
Fig. 4:
Theoretical hydropower potential of Benin [25].
2.2 Biomass potential
Traditional biomass represents a major part of energy consumption in Benin. The country has abundant potential for agricultural and residential waste that can be used to generate energy [26]. However, biomass is not currently used to generate electricity in the country; instead, agricultural waste and all other types of biomass waste are directly burned in the open air [22]. According to [27], Benin generated 1699 tonnes per day of municipal solid waste (MSW) in 2012 and would generate 3.2 times more MSW by 2025. This indicates that waste generation in the country is increasing with the increasing population and important decisions should be made to convert waste into useful energy. The ‘Societé de Gestion des déchéts du Grand Nokoué’ (SGDS-GN) showed that Cotonou city alone produced 230 000 tonnes per year of waste in 2020 [28]. Significant amounts of garbage exist in large cities and their recovery should be considered for the development of capacity to inject electrical energy production into the supply network. Significant amounts of trash, such as hulls and cottonseed, palm or coconut husk, are produced by food-processing factories and constitute the true potential for energy [20]. Equation (1) is used in this part of the study to estimate the energy that Benin could produce if its agricultural residues were converted into energy [29]:
(1)
where is the bioenergy potential of the i-th crop, is the residue-to-product ratio of a crop, is the surplus availability factor, is the area used for the i-th, is the yield of the i-th crop and
is the lower heating value of the i-th crop.
To estimate the bioenergy potential of Benin’s crop residue in 2021, crop production (tonnes) data were collected from the ‘Direction de la Statistique Agricole du Benin’ website [30]. The residue-to-product ratio (RPR), Surplus Availability Factor and lower heating value (LHV) values were taken from relevant studies in developing countries [29, 31, 32]. As presented in Table 2, the theoretical bioenergy potential of Benin was estimated to be 119.44 PJ in 2021. With a recovery factor of 60% [33], the country could generate 71.664 PJ of bioenergy per year. This is equivalent to 2272.45 MW of energy generation per year, which can considerably increase the energy production of the country.
Table 2:
Estimation of the potential for crop residues in Benin in 2021 [29, 31, 32]
| Crop | Type of residue | RPR | Surplus Availability Factor (SAF) | LHV (MJ/kg) | Production (tonnes) 2021 | Energy potential (PJ) 2021 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Maize | Stalk | 2.0a,b,c | 0.80b | 15.0b | 1 611 615 | 38.6788 |
| Cob | 0.27a,b,c | 1.0b | 15.50b | 1 611 615 | 6.7446 | |
| Rice | Straw | 1.75a,b | 1.0b | 16.02a | 411 578 | 11.5386 |
| Millet | Stalk | 1.75b | 0.80b | 12.39b | 27 294 | 0.4734 |
| Sorghum | Stalk | 1.75b | 0.80b | 12.38b | 148 236 | 2.5692 |
| Cassava | Stems and peels | 0.40b | 0.80c | 13.10c | 4 161 660 | 17.4457 |
| Yam | Peels | 0.20a | 0.35a | 10.61a | 3 150 248 | 2.3397 |
| Sweet potato | Peels | 0.40b,c | 0.80b,c | 16.0b,c | 56 923 | 0.2914 |
| Potato | Leaves | 0.75a | 0.35a | 10.61a | 2978 | 0.0192 |
| Groundnuts | Trash and shell | 2.10c | 0.92c | 11.20c | 172 641 | 3.7357 |
| Soybean | Straw | 2.66b,c | 0.80b | 18.0b | 253 954 | 9.7275 |
| Pods | 1.0b | 0.80b | 18.0b | 253 954 | 3.6569 | |
| Cotton | Stalk | 2.10c | 0.91c | 15.90c | 731 057 | 22.2131 |
| Total | 119.44 |
2.3 Wind energy
Wind power is one of the RE resources that exist in Benin. The wind potential in Benin is evaluated by the Agency for Safe Navigation in Air (ASECNA) and it shows that only coastal regions have substantial potential and consistent wind speeds throughout the year [34]. The theoretical wind potential of Benin is estimated to be 322 MW, with a wind speed at 10 m ranging from 3 to 6.1 m/s in the coastal zone and from 1 to 2 m/s in the country’s north [21]. Parts of areas in the centre of the country, in the southern and northern regions are considered to be more favourable for the development of wind projects and can host wind turbines for the production of wind energy [20]. Wind speed has been measured in different regions of Benin at heights of 12, 40, 50 and 60 m, with a roughness coefficient (?
?) of 0.4, as presented in Table 3. The maximum wind speed at 60 m is estimated to be 11.42 m/s and although no wind plant project has been implemented yet in Benin, more studies on the economic viability of wind systems are needed to plan for future wind power project development.
Table 3:
Wind speed at different heights in different regions in Benin with
?=?0.4 [34]
| Region | Height (m) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 12 | 40 | 50 | 60 | |
| Speed (m/s) | ||||
| Coastal zone | 4 | 6.47 | 7.08 | 7.61 |
| 5 | 8.09 | 8.85 | 9.52 | |
| 6 | 9.71 | 10.62 | 11.42 | |
| Zou and Collines | 2 | 3.24 | 3.54 | 3.82 |
| 3 | 4.86 | 5.31 | 5.71 | |
| Atacora and Alibori | 1 | 1.62 | 1.77 | 1.9 |
| 2 | 3.24 | 3.54 | 3.81 | |
2.4 Solar energy
In addition to hydropower, wind and biomass energy, solar energy is the most prominent renewable resource that must be exploited to generate green energy [15]. Recent solar projects developed by the government, specifically PROVES and PRODERE, have helped to increase access to electricity in rural and remote areas [12]. This increase serves to improve the quality of life in the country by improving educational services and providing income-generating opportunities. Local enterprises supply solar lanterns and solar home systems to increase local participation and innovation, and allow homeowners to have access to clean energy easily. A large number of technicians have received training in system maintenance and installation. Many private companies are working in Benin’s territories to offer solar PV energy for remote, rural and domestic activities. The country’s global horizontal solar radiation can be separated into four major zones, from north to south, in decreasing order of magnitude. The northern area of the country, encompassing the states of Alibori and Atacora, has the highest solar radiation, followed by Borgou and Donga, which have daily solar radiation ranging between 5.8 and 5.3 kWh/m2. Estimated average production in the southern states of Collines, Mono, Zou and Littoral ranges between 5.2 and 4.8 kWh/m2. In the states of Plateau, Ouémé, Atlantique and Couffo, the solar radiation is between 4.7 and 4.5 kWh/m2 [11]. Fig. 5 shows solar radiation data (kWh/m2/day) in different cities in Benin using data from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) [35].
![Solar radiation (kWh/m2/day) from major cities in Benin [35].](https://oup.silverchair-cdn.com/oup/backfile/Content_public/Journal/ce/7/5/10.1093_ce_zkad039/1/m_zkad039_fig5.jpeg?Expires=1734462506&Signature=xuXM4tFLbebE3Wn-jr3~uxEff7RO1Nj2Zb8wBcGCt--wDhDJt4TgRXqLD5iHZVYlPbSOKhbRFtb1t7o~-3HnzuMLh1a0golb5fCo8Px9wYQCy2jPzhCVJkv8Ii1oC4I6QPH8WyCAq586IFV0e5XmKOLbfdi8mG8F5F0s~xp-0us1~Lygmfn3GgU6-rVMkwWLtLbaG8P5dkBJDO~JUiQ4ijs0hyRUMcpz-hmXSsvI3Eqv-eKIno57q0suBI~KzzXDDMGKgiITf7YhXMo1gWQexp58T8qNZfhB23OobPOzd1FYwO5ug-F~6kgqw9cJWw4KovAOUHTNfK7Q~LnbLqSCEg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAIE5G5CRDK6RD3PGA)
Fig. 5:
Solar radiation (kWh/m2/day) from major cities in Benin [35].
To provide access to clean energy services to its communities, the government of Benin has recently inaugurated a 25-MW solar PV system. The solar power plant of Illoulofin is the first solar plant integrated into the grid with a generation capacity of 25 MW. It includes 47 212 solar PV modules with 530 W each, 113 inverters and 6 transformer stations of 3515 kVA. Built on an area of 26 ha as part of the DEFISSOL project of its ‘PRomouvoir l’Économie VERte au Bénin’ (PREVER) programme, the solar power plant is expected to contribute to Benin’s economic growth by improving the performance of operators and the quality of electrical service provided in an environmentally responsible manner. The electricity generated from the system is evacuated across a distance of 3 km via two 20-kV high-voltage A (HTA) lines of 25 MWp each. The electricity is fed into the SBEE grid via the Onigbolo substation. Its commissioning supplies 40 000 households for the first phase. The capacity of this plant is expected to be extended to 50 MWp by 2023 to supply 80 000 households. The plant would also avoid emissions of 23 000 tonnes of CO2 equivalent per year [36]. In addition, a 6.6-MW mini solar PV power plant has been commissioned in Avrankou, department of Ouémé. Hundreds of people can now charge their phones and watch television, which contributes to improving their living conditions [37]. With those two solar power plants, Benin’s installation capacity reached 213.1 MW in 2022. More solar power plant projects are underway in the country and will remarkably contribute to the increase in energy production in the country.
3 Future prospects for RE and government targets in Benin
Benin’s energy sector has set the vision of being self-sufficient in energy, allowing everyone in the country to have access to modern energy in quantity, quality and at a lower cost, to ensure universal access to clean energy by 2050. To make this true, three challenges must be met: reducing the dependence on imported energy; promoting the development of clean and RE sources through an energy transition based on low carbon and energy efficiency; and ensuring universal access to reliable, sustainable, modern and affordable energy services [23]. In terms of electricity access, the goal is to reach 95% urban and 65% rural electrification rates by 2025, respectively, while ensuring 24.6% RE in Benin’s energy mix and 100% national access to both electricity and clean cooking stoves by 2050 [16]. In their 2021 national contribution (NDC) report of 2021, different government targets were included with respect to RE [38]. These included reducing cumulative greenhouse gas emissions in the energy sector by 11.51% from 2021 to 2030 relative to the status quo; promoting energy efficiency and energy utilization by providing improved cooking stoves to 140 000 new households; promoting access to 275 000 new families to home gas cooking equipment: subsidizing the purchase of small equipment of 6 kg plus burner by ?30%; electrification of location via network link (in total 600 localities between 2021 and 2030); and promoting access for 424 000 families utilizing kerosene for electrical lighting in areas that will be connected to the SBEE network. This will be done through the additional use of RE systems, mainly solar PV, wind power, bioenergy and hydroelectricity.
3.1 Solar PV
It is worth noticing that solar PV will play a crucial role in Benin’s future energy development. With solar radiation of ?6.1 kWh/m2/day, the Sun shines 8 h per day in the country [11]. From the perspective of sustainable energy production, the Millennium Challenge Account-Bénin II initiative (MCA-Bénin II), which aims to promote economic growth in Benin, has launched a tender to build four solar power plants with a total capacity of 50 MW [39]. A 10-MW plant will be built in Natitingou, in north-western Benin, while another of the same capacity will be built in Djougou, in the country’s north-western corner. MCA-Bénin II will tender two additional 15-MW plants in Parakou and Bohicon, respectively [40]. GREENHIRT is also planning to build a 10-MW solar power plant near Kandi [23]. Among others, there is also a project to build a 25-MWp solar power plant with the Agence Française de Developement, financing the development of PV public lighting, and promoting access of households in isolated regions to solar PV kits [38]. The capacity of the Illoulofin solar plant is set to be doubled in the coming years. In addition to the mini central of Avrankou, four additional solar centrals are being built in the country with the assistance of the United Nations Development Program (PNUD).
3.2 Hydroelectricity
Different hydroelectric projects are underway and planned in the country. These include the implementation of projects related to the construction of six small hydroelectric plants. A 128-MW hydroelectric power plant will be installed at Dogo-bis for an expected production capacity of 337 GWh/year. In addition, the Vossa hydroelectric power plant of 60.2 MW is to be built with an annual production capacity of 188.2 GWh. An additional hydroelectric plant is planned to be installed in Bétérou to increase the national electricity production in Benin [38].
3.3 Bioenergy
Bioenergy can also play a crucial role in the energy sector in Benin. Although there is currently no bioenergy power plant operational in the country, there is a plan to support the construction of a 5-MW power production plant using household waste produced in Cotonou [20]. Future projects include the promotion of the economic use of fuelwood by providing 809 043 new households with access to improved stoves at subsidized prices by 2030. Between 2020 and 2030, access to small cooking equipment will be guaranteed for 275 000 new households using domestic gas by subsidizing the cost of acquisition by ?30% or setting up a mechanism facilitating access to credit for junior civil servants (guarantee fund) [38].
3.4 Wind power
Although hydroelectricity, biomass and especially PV technologies play an increasingly important role in the electrification of Benin, recent studies have shown that wind energy technologies can also contribute. Non-electrified rural and peri-urban localities have favourable wind potential in coastal Benin. Projects to build small-power wind turbines can also serve as a supplement to solar PV in a mini-grid configuration because, during the rainy season, when PV generation is reduced, wind speeds are generally high. It is expected that by 2025–30, the small wind turbine sector in Benin will be a solid industry with an indispensable contribution to the electrification of the country [41]. Table 4 summarizes the future prospects for RE in the context of Benin with some barriers to the implementation of RE projects in Benin.
Table 4:
Renewable energy prospect of Benin with barriers to project implementation [21, 43]
| RE source | Technical potential (MW) | Future prospect | Barriers |
|---|---|---|---|
| Solar PV | 3532a | Promising | Intermittency, low solar radiation in the rainy season (June to September) |
| Hydropower | 761a | Available at a few sites in the country | Environmental concerns, lack of financial resources and inadequate policy |
| Bioenergy | 749b | Promising | Atmospheric emissions, lack of financial resources and inadequate policy |
| Wind | 322a | Limited to coastal regions only | Intermittency, lack of financial resources |
4 RE policy and regulations in Benin
There is currently no overall RE policy, regulation or law in Benin. However, the government recently adopted the National Policy for the Development of Renewable Energies (PONADER), which is based on the low large-scale use of RE technologies to contribute to the reduction of greenhouse gas effects. Its goal is to contribute to the sustainable development of the country through the supply of RE services accessible to the greatest number of the population at the lowest cost while promoting the socio-economic activities of the rural world through modern energy [42]. PONADER is in line with the government’s 2025 target and is on the path to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals initiated by the United Nations. Several institutional frameworks in the energy sector in Benin are working to provide access to affordable energy in the country.
4.1 Institutional Framework and Stakeholders in Benin’s power sector
Ministry of Energy (ME):
The ME is the biggest institution of the energy sector, responsible for the management of the energy sector and in charge of the implementation of RE projects. It ensures the promotion and enhancement of national energy resources, guides national energy policy and supervises all entities directly involved in the energy sector.
General Directorate of Energy Resources (DGRE):
The DGRE develops, in collaboration with other competent national structures, the government’s policy relating to the development of national energy resources, energy management and energy efficiency. It also plays an important role in the coordination and monitoring of the operational structures of the actions of the ME [44].
Electrical Community of Benin (CEB):
The CEB, a common structure between Benin and Togo, was established after its installation to provide the import, production and distribution of electrical energy in both countries. Recently, its role has been orientated exclusively towards its core business: the transmission of electricity for the needs of both countries [45].
Beninese Electricity Production Company (SBPE):
After its installation in 2020, the SBPE is currently operational in Benin with the primary role of producing electricity in the country.
Beninese Agency for Rural Electrification and Energy Control (ABERME):
The mission of the ABERME is to implement state policy in the areas of rural electrification, energy management and energy control [46].
Authority of Electricity Regulation (ARE):
The role of the ARE is to supervise conformity with laws and regulations governing the electricity subsector, to defend the public interest and to ensure continuity of service, quality services and the balance of the subfinancial sector and its harmonic development [47].
SBEE:
The SBEE is in charge of electricity distribution throughout the national territory. It also ensures the operation and maintenance of electrical equipment and performs extension and connection work.
In addition to national institutions in the energy sector in Benin, there are regional and international stakeholders that contribute to the development of the RE sector. The West African sub-interstate region’s energy trading is promoted through the ECOWAS Centre for Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency (ECREEE), West African Power Pool and the regional authority for electricity regulation (ERERA). In particular, the ECREEE contributes to improving access to modern, reliable and affordable energy services, and energy security in the region [25]. The foundation of financial support for the development of different power projects in Benin has been provided by intergovernmental organizations and development partners, such as IRENA, the World Bank, Gesellschaft für Internationale (GIZ), Energising Development (EnDev), etc. Fig. 6 presents the structure of the power sector in Benin with regional and international stakeholders.
Fig. 6:
Stakeholders in the Benin power sector.
4.2 Electricity tariff in Benin
Currently, there is no electricity feed-in-tariff policy in Benin. Electricity is sold directly to the population through the SBEE. Social class consumption, which is ?20 kWh, is sold at $USD/kWh 0.14, which is equivalent to 86 African Financial Community franc (86 CFA franc). For those whose consumption is between 20 and 50 kWh, the kilowatt hour is sold at $USD 0.18 (109 CFA franc). For subscribers not benefiting from subsidies, any consumption between 50 and 250 kWh costs $USD/kWh 0.20 (125 CFA franc) to the customer, while consumption of >250 kWh is sold at $USD/kWh 0.24 (148 CFA franc) [48].
5 Conclusion
Benin, as one of the least-developed West African countries, is hampered by energy crisis and untimely electricity shutout. Almost 59% of the Benin population does not have access to electricity and depend on traditional biomass as the main source of energy. The energy sector in Benin has not seen the greatest contribution from RE and is dependent on petrol products and natural gas imported from neighbouring countries. However, RE can help meet the ever-increasing energy demand in recent years in the country. The average solar radiation ranges from 3 to 6.1kWh/m2/day and can be used to produce energy and reduce the gap between energy demand and supply. There is a considerable amount of biomass residue in the country and should be considered for future energy production. Small hydro and wind energy resources have not yet been fully exploited and further investigation is required to boost Benin’s RE production capacity. The government is making remarkable efforts to achieve its sustainable development goals and must work with international agencies and private institutions to provide financial support for RE generation. Adequate laws, regulations and feed-in-tariff policies are needed to promote energy transition in the country and attract investors’ attention to the RE potential of Benin. The study also provides an understanding of the energy sector of Benin and can open the door for further study to develop RE models for Benin to help manage the energy system of the country well.
https://academic.oup.com/ce/article/7/5/952/7273024
Lior Kahana, pv-magazine.com
